US soldiers through the streets in Japan during the US occupation after World War II. HD clips
Between 1937 and 1945, during the war years, the Japanese economy has been the rapid development of production indices showed an increase of 24 percent in manufacturing, 46 percent steel, 70 percent in metals non-ferrous, and 252 percent in machinery a large part of the economy increasingly militarized was diverse and sophisticated in a way that facilitated the conversion to peacetime activities in the automotive industry, by example, 11 major automakers in postwar Japan, came out ten years of war that Honda is a product of the post-war period Three of the ten Toyota, Nissan and Isuzu, prospered as the main truck farmers for the army after the law passed in 1936 had led Ford and General Motors in the Japanese market other giants on the stage of post-war gained a competitive advantage comparable in s war years Nomura Securities, which is now the second richest company in Japan after Toyota, was founded in 1925 as a company specializing in bonds His big breakthrough as a securities broker, however, came by expansion into shares in 1938 and mutual fund operations in 1941 Hitachi, the largest manufacturer of electrical equipment from Japan, was established in 1910, but has emerged as a global vertically integrated manufacturer of electrical machines in the years 1930 in the Ayukawa conglomerate that also included Nissan same, Toshiba, which ranks second after Hitachi in electrical products, dates back to 1904, but only became a comprehensive manufacturer of electrical products following a merger in 1939 under the military campaign to consolidate and streamline the production of entire sectors could take off in the afternoon guer re based on the progress made during the war, this paragraph is based on John Dower, 1992, pp 54-55.
After the war, most of the war, and much of the technology companies used during the war were converted to economic development Peaceful Japanese private companies are being quickly and without fear they borrowed massive amounts of banks and took large debts private enterprises developed rapidly, against the Conservative Government's view that they merge to compete more effectively against Big Three Detroit contrast, Toyota, Nissan, Isuzu, Toyo Kogyo Mazda and Mitsubishi all decided to produce lines a complete upstart motorcycle company founded by Soichiro Honda challenged bureaucratic warnings and entered the automotive market in 1963 with a great long-term success in 1953, two young conformists, Morita Akio and Masaru Ibuka, struggled for months with reluctant officials prior permission win to buy a license po ur produce transistors starting with the radio in the 1950s, their infant company, Sony, quickly emerged as the world leader in the quality of innovation in consumer electronics Gordon, 248-49.
Nationalism and the desire to catch up with the West persisted after the Second World War, but now the efforts have focused on the economic and industrial objectives, for example, machine guns were converted factories to manufacture sewing machines; Factories optical weapons now produced cameras and binoculars Pyle, p 242.
The vast devastation of the Japanese economy during the war and the need to rebuild from scratch often leads to the introduction of new technologies and new management styles, which gave these companies a chance to update and to update their changes were met with a friendly environment for free trade, technology and cheap cheap raw materials during the cold war, Japan was the customer and friend of the US economy and markets advanced Japanese were allowed to close while the US market was open to Japanese products.
During the Cold War, strategic interests led the United States to allow Japan to export to the United States while protecting its domestic market, allowing the formation of cartels and untrained market factors in the Japanese economy and the development of an asymmetrical trade relationship with the United States export-oriented economy that Japan has developed accordingly also benefited greatly from international market low rates adhering to the GATT, the forerunner of the WTO, the low price of oil and other raw materials needed for industrial development.
Because Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution prohibits Japan from rearming, Japan has lived under the umbrella of American military protection, spending 1 percent of GNP on the defensive capabilities of the army that is huge amount of money that the Japanese economy grew the second largest in the world, which, percentage wise, helped to save the most money if they were Japanese military themselves.
In Japan, a society of well-being rather than the welfare state is characterized by total employment, including cartels of small and medium businesses to prevent bankruptcy in order to keep total employment.
The well-being of society and total employment have allowed the Japanese government to devote a large part of the money he would have spent on welfare in industrial development, in the form of bank loans.
During the American occupation 1946-1949, the Japanese economy was supported by 500 million per year from the United States, despite this assistance, because of the devastation in war, the Japanese economy was in shambles.
In response, US forces work invited the banker Detroit Dodge to balance the Japanese economy, which presented the budget balance Dodge 1949 level, reducing inflation, pay off the debts of the Japanese government Fix exchange rates 1360 yen compared to 1,110 yen today.
That exchange rate Japanese yen overpriced shows high inflation happening in Japan before 1949.
Reaction to Dodge poses massive plan off the workers and the economic recession, because Japanese products have become less competitive on the international market Dodge too much to hope that after the initial pain, the Japanese economy would start by stable development the following.
In the bank loans of the state reaction to private companies to prevent them from bankruptcy in the 1950s, the main concern of the Japanese economy was capital accumulation and export promotion; also for medium-sized businesses were protesting against tax increases These concerns have prevented the formation of a welfare state because that would require tax increases instead, the state fostered a society of well-being by the law society of well-being by maintaining almost total employment through loans from the Liberal government to private companies, given the need for pension unemployment benefits came largely from personal savings and compensation of the company, rather than the benefits of the state.
The well-being of society saved the Japanese government a lot of money, which was generously lent to businesses and ensure a secure supply of funding for many companies, leading some to competition and technological innovation, but it has also prevented some businesses to upgrade because of guaranteed funding, there was a story with two faces.
As part of the society welfare, unemployment benefits limited exist, but they are provided by private companies Unemployment insurance premiums are borne by workers and employers on a fifty-fifty basis The government pay a partial amount of the management and operation costs-- 14 percent of the cost of unemployment insurance and other services on unemployment is directly covered by the national treasury account of the withholding of wages is, in principle, fixed at 1 1 percent of the total annual salary However, the actual rate of contribution to these plans has been reduced to 0 9 percent for 1992, and was 0 for 8 percent fiscal 1993 unemployment benefit was 60 percent to 80 percent of salary before being unemployed for a period of 90 to 300 days, which was extended to 330 days in 2001 conditions vary by age and duration contribute to the large private system were also responsible for social housing, health or nefits, pension and other benefits for recreational activities in a group called lifetime employment practiced after 1960, all these naturally add to the cost of large companies, which then pass the cost on to consumers as higher prices.
3 Funding for the Japanese economy and cooperation between state and business.
In the years from 1950, the Japanese leaders in the bureaucracy and the political party in power, working in tandem with business leaders, actively sought to manage and develop the economy Over the 23 years from 1950 to 1973, GNP gross national product of Japan; the total value of goods and services produced in a year increased by an average annual rate of over 10 percent with only minor slowdowns There was also a high rate of investment in the Gordon technology, Japan has developed a 246-oriented economy export much of what he produced would be sold abroad and the foreign currency they did would be invested in the purchase of technology, management, raw materials and energy sources for its development industrial of Japan is a country with few raw materials for industrial development and no known oil reserves with the exception of limited recent offshore discoveries Today, more than 70 percent of manufactured goods from Japan exported overseas When based economy first started exporting in the 1950s, Japan had a favorable international environment the s United States led to the negotiation of a more open trading system through treaties like the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs GATT, the predecessor of the Organization of the WTO today, World cheap trade and supply of reliable energy as oil of industrial expansion in the Middle East and elsewhere supplied at relatively low relatively affordable licensing costs also gave Japanese companies open access to host of new transistor technology to steel furnaces.
Private banks, as well as public institutions such as the Industrial Development Bank, drew on personal savings to channel capital to businesses during the first years of Japanese economic development from the 1950s to 1960s, January 3 loans bank from private savings the average household saved less than 10 percent of its income in the early 1950s, but the savings rate has climbed steadily as the economy grew and reached 15 percent 1960 and exceeded 20 percent in 1970, households continued to save more than 20 percent since then, these funds deposited in savings accounts of commercial banks or the government led postal savings system, consisting of a vast pool of capital available for investment in Gordon industry 246 There was also extensive government regulation of the Japanese and Korean industry ise the Japanese capitalism is sometimes called capitalism negotiated to refer to the expanded role the state plays in all departments of the government, perhaps MITI was most instrumental MITI and the Finance Ministry has encouraged the rationalization of business and industries and guided the structural transformation of the economy MITI has stimulated the movement of capital and labor on declining industries such as coal and textiles and in promising new industries with high growth potential - first in electronics, steel, petrochemicals and automobiles, and later in computers, semiconductors and biotechnology Pyle, 247.
Since MITI has achieved most of its objectives with the distribution of loans, where does the money come As mentioned above, a considerable amount of money came from personal savings, which was then assigned to the Economic Development Ministry Finance and MITI established the development Bank of Japan in 1951 with access to a huge pool of investment known as financial investment name and FLIP loan plan, which included the economies of countries in the postal savings system, a favorite place for people to put their money because their accounts were tax FLIP exempt and amassed savings four times the size of the largest commercial bank in the world has become a powerful political tool that MITI used to provide capital low cost for industries that favored the long-term growth the Ministry of Finance was to ensure the available during itivity capital has imposed restrictions on the entry or exit of capital it could ration and guide the flow of capital to large companies in such industries as steel, shipbuilding, automobiles rad es, electronics and chemicals in adopting new technologies and were central to increasing productivity and exports also have tariffs, direct and indirect subsidies for key industries for development Pyle, 247-48.
Where else the money comes to MITI and the Ministry of Finance Another important reason for the money for economic growth, in addition to the small percentage of Japan's GDP on military expenditures 1 was the minimum the government spent welfare instead of building a state of well-being, the government encouraged the Japanese to become a welfare society - by total employment, to reduce or eliminate the need for the state pass unemployment benefit While the pension existed for some workers in large companies, it is mainly the result of the company's contributions and workers, and the government contribution was minimal again, as unemployment benefits, pensions were paid by employees and their companies on a basis consistent 50 50 as a social security system of the United States, Japanese Ether Has has been involved in the process that by entrusting money on both sides of an airline designated for investment and the payment to the employee retirement are based on an agreement on the amount of the annuity at the start of employment employee This system has also encouraged employees to stay with the same company for life to get the amount of the promised pension early the money the Japanese government has saved the public sector spending has been invested in the economy as liberal bank loans of the Bank of Japan to Citibanks and other regional banks that have stimulated competition and technological innovations Gao 2001.
According to John Dower, the Japanese bureaucratic control of the economy through the many banks could trace its origin back to the War Before 1927, there were about 1 400 ordinary commercial banks in Japan This number has declined steadily so that in 1945, through mergers and takeovers, it was 61 and there has been little change since the so-called banks of the city that are truly national banks that stand at the center of the post business groups war were in most cases considerably strengthened by critics legislation introduced between 1942 and 1944, which identified a number of financial institutions authorized to receive special assistance from the government and the Bank of Japan by providing the vast majority of loans to more 600 major strategic war material producers Thus, in 1931, the ratio of direct equity, meaning shares em ises to the public or some other private companies to finance indirect bank loans industry was about 9 1 in 1935, it was 7 3, and in 1945, as in 1960, there was 1 9 meaning for every dollar a company has obtained the tocks show, he earned nine dollars of bank loans Dower, 1992, pp 57-58 After the war, due to the indirect domination of the United States during the American occupation the Japanese bureaucratic structure remained largely intact, and the Japanese government has used large banks to provide loans and direct economic development.
B measures to prevent monopolies from competition Zaibatsu and Keiretsu.
During the American occupation, one of MacArthur made decisions to liberalize Japan was to abolish Zaibatsu monopolies Because of the beginning of the Cold War and the Korean War, has not confirmed the anti-monopoly position by Americans to give Japanese companies a chance to participate more aggressively internationally This opportunity was taken by the Japanese government September 1, 1953, the regime has changed the anti-monopoly law to ease restrictions imposed by occupation on the cartels, locking directions, and mergers to maximize resource utilization efficiency, MITI preferred to have limited competition to a small number of very large companies, the fair trade Commission the authority to prevent the freedom of trade was constantly attacked by MITI in one case, the best documented collusive behavior that resulted in changed r ules, six manufacturing TVs of Japanese companies joined forces to form a Market Stabilization Force in 1956 to control the domestic price of TVs They have maintained a high level of prices in the domestic market while the government's tariff policy kept the market closed to foreign producers with high profit margins and an assured market at home, the export-oriented industry, particularly in the US market through below- cost of exports to the US market, Japanese companies have led most of their American competitors on companies the Japanese government stimulated and shaped the development of the television industry by preferential credit allocation by major banks, lax enforcement of antitrust rules, forgiving fact cartels recession, coordination of inves invest- guided MITI and various forms of non-tariff barriers Pyle 248.
In addition to maintaining monopolies to some extent, the Japanese government has also condoned the construction of a more flexible trade alliance of various companies, either horizontally or vertically, called keiretsu Six major business groups - Mitsui Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa - were organized horizontally Thus, each horizontal keiretsu consists of several dozen members including a main bank, major financial institutions, the largest manufacturing companies, and a large company General trade within each group, members held shares of the other, they had interlocking directorates and engaged in intra-group financing and joint R & D firms These horizontal keiretsu helped ensure the long-term stability, efficiency, reducing risk, and mutual support There were also giant vertical keiretsu organized in the automotive, electronics industry and other Nissan, Toyota, Hitachi, Matsushita, Sony, etc. They used to organize a large number of subcontractors and suppliers of s ervices The vertical keiretsu has provided effective services, long-term reciprocal to a parent company and its suppliers, including the coordination of planning and investment, sharing of technology and information, quality control and delivery and flexibility throughout economic cycles Finally, the distribution keiretsu allowed manufacturers to control product mass marketing these networks has allowed manufacturers to avoid price competition between retailers to maintain high profit margins in the domestic market, and so allow fierce competition in the international market, in other words, they become a way effective to force Japanese consumers to subsidize the international competitiveness of large enterprises manufact urières Pyle 250.
The ten companies held by Mitsubishi Bank percent of the shares.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industry May 7 New Japan Steel Mitsubishi Trading Company April 1 7 8 7 6 Asahi hyaline Mitsubishi Chemical May 6 Mitsubishi Motors Mitsubishi Real Estate 3 March March 9 Tokyo Marine and Fire Insurance May 7 Kikki Japan Railway May 3 Japan Ship March 4.
Japan's economic take-off after 1945, Japanese economic takeoff in 1945.
Domeyko 1935, 1945, Santiago, Región Metropolitana, Чили